Literature Review Format Essay Example for Free

Literature Review Format Essay Literature Review This packet details the steps necessary to produce a literature review that may be required for work in various disciplines, including English, history and psychology. This packet is not intended to replace instructor guidelines and should not be used in that manner. The packet’s intended use is as a supplement to classroom instruction on assembling a literature review. Therefore, it contains only general information that must be tailored to fit specific guidelines as required by your discipline and by your instructor. This packet is subdivided into six sections: I. General Information States what a literature review is and what purpose it serves. II. Process Gives step-by-step instructions on how to get started on your literature review. III. Organization Explains the two most common ways of arranging information in a literature review. IV. Format Provides descriptions for two of the most common formats used in a literature review, the item to item comparison and contrast (Format A) and the criteria to criteria comparison and contrast (Format B). V. Checklist Allows appraisal of your completed literature review to assure that it follows all necessary guidelines. VI. Resources Lists helpful resources used to compile this packet so that you may obtain further information. General Information Definition Literature reviews can have two roles: In their first role, they function as a stand-alone paper. At other times they will actually be part of a larger research thesis. In this handout, literature reviews will be referred to in the stand-alone sense. As a stand-alone paper, literature reviews are multi-layered and are more formal and detailed than book reviews. As the author of a literature review, you must become familiar with a large amount of research on a specific topic. You will then develop your own thesis about the topic related to this research. After this, you will classify and critically analyze research on the topic by making a comparison between several different studies and by emphasizing how these studies and their comparison relate to your own thesis. In effect, a literature review is a paper that compiles, outlines and evaluates previously established research and relates it to your own thesis. It provides a context for readers as if they  Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 were researching the topic on their own. Just from reading your paper, readers should be able to gain insight into the amount and quality of research on the topic. Your thesis and the literature reviewed serve several important functions within the paper: †¢ Your thesis creates a foundation for the literature review because it helps narrow the topic by providing a sense of direction; however, you will have to conduct some initial research and reading before deciding on an appropriate thesis. Your personal thesis may be a statement addressing some of the following situations: â€Å"why your research needs to be carried out, how you came to choose certain methodologies or theories to work with, how your work adds to the research already carried out† (Brightwell, G. and Shaw, J. , 1997-98), or it may present some other logical perspective. †¢ Reviewed literature is organized in a logical manner that best suits the topic of the review and the hypothesis of the literature (see Organization and Format). The selected method of organization and style of format should draw attention to similarities and differences among the reviewed literature; these similarities and differences are based on specific criteria you revealed in the literature review’s introduction. According to Brightwell and Shaw (1997-98), your goal in the body of the review â€Å". . . should be to evaluate and show relationships between the work already done (Is Researcher Y’s theory more convincing than Researcher X’s? Did Researcher X build on the work of Researcher Y?) and between this work and your own [thesis]. † Additional information on these topics can be found in the Organization and Format sections of this packet. Therefore, carefully planned organization is an essential part of any literature review. Purpose Although literature reviews may vary according to discipline, their overall goal is similar. A literature review serves as a compilation of the most significant sources on a subject and relates the findings of each of these sources in a rational manner while supporting the literature review author’s own thesis. A literature review establishes which sources are most relevant to its author’s point and which sources are most credible to the discipline at hand. In a literature review, the results of previous research are summarized, organized and evaluated. Discipline-Specificity A literature review’s organization, format, level of detail and citation style may vary according to discipline because different disciplines have different audiences. Examples here pertain to the natural sciences, social sciences and humanities. †¢ Natural and social sciences The author of a literature review in the natural or social sciences must pay close attention to measurements, study populations and technical aspects of experimental findings. Typically, a portion of the natural or social sciences literature review is set aside for reviewing sources on the primary topic. Then, a comparative analysis or discussion section is used to analyze the similarities and differences among the sources, tying them in with the literature review author’s original thesis. †¢ Humanities The author of a literature review in the humanities usually does not set aside a special section for reviewing the sources; instead, citations may be found randomly throughout the paper. The literature being reviewed is arranged according to paragraphs based on the author’s points, which in turn, support the author’s thesis. The paper itself may not be called a literature review at all. It is more likely to be called a critical analysis. Remember that the best bet for determining what type of literature review is appropriate for your course is checking with the instructor prior to beginning research. Email at [emailprotected]hv. edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 REVIEW 1. What is the purpose of a literature review? What is the connection between the author’s thesis and the literature being reviewed? 2. What discipline will your literature review be classified in? Process 1. Find several articles that deal with your research topic. Sometimes it is helpful to review the bibliography of one of the first scholarly sources that you encounter and compare it to the bibliographies of other sources on the topic. If the same source is listed within several of these bibliographies, it is probably a fundamental, credible source that will aid you in your review. 2. Before you begin reviewing literature, realize that you are looking to accomplish two things: A. Defining your research problem/thesis (examples: finding a flaw in research, continuing previous research, etc . . . B. Reading and evaluating significant works that are relevant to your research problem. You will be conducting Steps A and B simultaneously because the two form a circular pattern. As you read related sources (Step B), you define your problem, and as you define your problem (Step A) you will more easily be able to decide what material is relevant enough to be worthy of reading (Step B). 3. Once you begin reviewing, make an entry with complete bibliographical information and comments for each work that you are going to include in the review. 4. Compare the articles by evaluating the similarities and differences among them. This will be the initial stage in the formulation of your thesis. 5. Form a thesis that is clearly written and can be logically supported by the literature you will include in your review. 6. View the articles briefly again and jot down any notes that seem to relate to your thesis. 7. Decide which organizational pattern and format are best for the topic of your review. 8. Construct an appropriate outline for the literature review. 9. Write an introduction that introduces the topic, reveals your thesis statement, and arranges key issues. 10. Organize and write the body of your paper according to the appropriate format: topical or chronological. 11. Write a conclusion that reconciles similarities and differences on the topic and reemphasizes the criteria used to arrive at this conclusion. 12. Complete the final draft of the literature review. Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 13. Check over the final draft for grammar and punctuation errors. 14. Use the checklist provided here to make sure that all parts of the literature review are addressed and focused. Establishing a Critical Response for a Literature Review You may find this section helpful at Steps 3, 4 and 5 of the process. When reviewing your sources, explore the following areas to help develop your critical response: What is the purpose of the research or work? What research or literary methods are used? How do the major concepts operate? In a research study, how accurate are the measurements? In a literary work, is the author’s position objective or biased? What are the different interpretations of the results of the study or of the literary work itself? REVIEW 1. What do you consider to be the most crucial step(s) in the process of your literature review? Why? Justify your response(s). Organization A literature review can be arranged either topically or chronologically. Topical organization occurs in reviews where previous research being evaluated is divided into segments with each one representing a part of some larger issue. In a topical review, the author begins by describing the characteristics of research shared by several studies and then moves on to analyze their similarities and differences. For more information, see the example below. Example The organization of a literature review begins in the introduction. For example, in the introduction of a literature review about the effect of seating arrangements on peer tutoring communication, you would first introduce the topic and what your literature review will attempt to assess: †¦Writing centers can set the table for collaborative tutoring sessions through a careful consideration of spatial arrangement . . . Then state what angle is going to be explored: †¦These studies will be used to support the author’s claims that spatial arrangement is instrumental in encouraging collaborative environments in the writing center†¦ Then, arrange key issues that will be addressed in this review by answering questions that you have personally developed and are tailored to fit your topic. In the introduction, give the audience a clear picture of how you will organize your paper: Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 In the following, I1 first review some relevant research concerning spatial arrangement and then discuss some recommended and alternate seating arrangements to encourage a collaborative environment in the writing center. Finally, I include some other considerations. In the body of this literature review, you would organize the information topically around each point (or question) that you asked yourself: -Research Review -Recommended Spatial Arrangement -Alternative Spatial Arrangement -Other Considerations. Then, write a conclusion that explains the significance of your findings: †¦While the seating arrangements outlined above are generally a good ‘setting’ for peer tutoring sessions, we should remember that each tutoring session is unique. Not all students will be comfortable with a side-by-side spatial arrangement at a round table. Tutors should be perceptive of and receptive to students who may have other spatial needs†¦ Chronological organization occurs when a review is organized in time order and is most often used when a historical context is needed for discussing a topic from its beginning to its current state; chronological organization is  especially helpful when discussing inactive periods and shifts in perspective on a given topic. Example The organization of a literature review begins in the introduction. For example, in the introduction of a literature review entitled Development of Social Science Research on Attitudes Towards Gender in America, you would first introduce the topic and what your review hopes to assess: †¦This literature review will assess the development of research designed to uncover gender attitudes in America during the latter part of the 20th Century†¦ Then state what angle is going to be explored: .. As research progressed throughout the 20th century, the methods that social scientists use for measuring these attitudes developed and changed as well†¦ Then, chronologically arrange issues that will be addressed in this review: Gender stereotypes still exist today, and varying attitudes can be traced over the past fifty years. Survey instruments used to gather data on these varying attitudes have also changed drastically over the course of time. In the body of this literature review, you would organize the information chronologically, adressing each point (or question) that is being asked for a particular time period: -Stereotypes and Survey Instruments of the 1950’s -Stereotypes and Survey Instruments of the 1960’s -Stereotypes and Survey Instruments of the 1970’s -Stereotypes and Survey Instruments of the 1980’s -Stereotypes and Survey Instruments of the 1990’s -Current Advancements Always clear the use of I with your instructor. An alternative to this would be the use of third person wording, such as â€Å"This paper reviews some relevant research concerning spatial arrangement and then discusses some recommended and alternate seating arrangements to encourage a collaborative environment in the writing center. † 1 Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 Then, write a conclusion that explains the significance of your findings: Although the survey instruments used in the 1950’s and 1960’s developed an obvious bias when surveying Americans regarding gender attitudes, the 1970’s brought about great change. Today social scientists are more careful than ever about testing the quality of a survey instrument before using it on the general public. Format There are also two suggested formats for composing your literature review. Format A is used when comparing several studies that have similar hypothesis but different findings. Each piece of research is summarized individually. Format A is good for reviews with a small number of entries; however, this format may confuse the audience when used with a large number of reviews because descriptions of so many studies may get in the way of the analysis. Keep in mind that each piece of research usually will not receive equal attention in the review. Format A Outline I. Introduction consists of four parts that are usually discussed in one paragraph. a. Identify the general topic being discussed. b. Mention trends published about the topic. c. State thesis establishing the reason for writing the literature review. d. Explain criteria by giving a description of each of the criteria used in evaluating the literature review and rationalizing its organization II. Literature reviewed section is divided up according to study. a. First study is summarized and discussed. b. Second study is summarized and discussed. c. Third study is summarized and discussed. III. Comparative analysis acknowledges the similarities and differences between studies. a. Similarities (if any) among the studies are evaluated and discussed. b. Differences (if any) among the studies are evaluated and discussed. IV. Conclusion/Summary effectively wraps up the review. a. Summarize points of comparison or contrast among the works based on Section III of your review. b. Provide insight of relationship between the topic of the review and a larger area of study such as a specific discipline or profession Format B  organizes the literature review according to similarities and differences among research rather than by literature studied. In a review organized according to Format B, little background information on the literature being reviewed is given outright. Instead, it is worked into the body paragraphs of the sections on similarities and differences. The conclusion then uses these two sections (similarities and differences) to tie in points of comparison and contrast between the works. Format B better suits papers that are topically organized. Format B is outlined below. Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 Format B Outline I. Introduction consists of four parts usually discussed in one paragraph. a. Identify the general topic being discussed. b. Mention trends published about the topic. c. State thesis establishing the reason for writing the literature review. d. Explain criteria by giving a description of each of the criteria used in evaluating the literature review and rationalizing its organization II. Similiarities within the research are discussed. a.  First similarity among research is discussed. b. Second similarity among research is discussed. c. Third similiarity among research is discussed. III. Differences in the research are discussed. a. First difference between research is discussed b. Second difference between research is discussed c. Third difference between research is discussed IV. Conclusion/Summary a. Summarize points of comparison or contrast between the works. b. Provide insight into relationship between the topic of the literature and a larger area of study such as a specific discipline or profession. The most important thing to remember when organizing a literature review is that it is not a list summarizing one work after another. The review should be organized into sections according to theme that are set apart by subject-related headings. REVIEW 1. Which format have you chosen for your literature review? Why? A Literature Review Checklist: Did I . . . . . . ? ? Establish a valid thesis based on the examined research ? State this thesis clearly in my introduction ? Define unfamiliar terms ? Incorporate background information to define the problem ? Begin each entry in the review with a complete bibliographical reference ? List and describe the hypothesis/thesis in each work reviewed Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288 ? Describe the outcome of the work or the research ? Develop and incorporate my own comments, including response to the research, similarities and differences among literature reviewed, and reservations regarding author’s methods or conclusions ? Avoid overquoting ? Check for grammar and punctuation errors ? Correctly cite all references in uniform documentation style Resources Brightwell, G.  and Shaw, J. (1997-98). Writing up research. Retrieved August 20, 2002 from Languages and Educational Development at the Asian Institute of Technology’s Web page at http://www. languages. ait. ac. th/EL21OPEN. HTM Central Queensland University Library. (2000). The literature review. Retrieved July 22, 2003 from http://www. library. cqu. edu. au/litreviewpages/ Cuba, L. (2002). A short guide to writing about social science. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishers. Leibensperger, S. (2003). Setting the table: Encouraging collaborative environments with spatial arrangement in the writing center. Unpublished literature review. Northern Arizona University. (1999). Electronic textbook A blast from the past: Your literature review. Retrieved May 30, 2002 from http://jan. ucc. nau. edu/~mid/edr720/class/literature/blast/reading21-1. html Taylor, D. , Procter, M. (2001). The literature review: A few tips on conducting it. Retrieved June 17, 2002 from http://www. utoronto. ca/writing/litrev. html Trinder, L. (2002). Appendix. The literature review. Retrieved August 27, 2003 http://www. uea. ac. uk/~w071/teaching/ppf/Appendix%20Lit%20Review. pdf The University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center. (2001). Academic writing: Reviews of literature. Retrieved May 30, 2002 from http://www. wisc. edu/writing/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature. html *In traditional APA style, this section would be entitled â€Å"References† and would be listed on a separate page double-spaced. Due to space constraints in this packet, it has been formatted differently. Copyright 2003 by the Academic Center and the University of Houston-Victoria. Created 2003 by Candice Chovanec-Melzow. Email at [emailprotected] edu University West, room 129 (361) 570-4288.

Should obese people pay more for medical treatment

Should obese people pay more for medical treatment Obesity is an incredibly expensive disease, both for the patients and the hospitals. Aside from being a disease which is associated with many further complications and problems, which themselves lead to an increased cost, this disease also requires costly medication and specialised equipment for diagnosis and treatment. This results in a condition which has proven extremely costly to nearly all parties involved. It has been reported that  £47 million was spent purely on anti-obesity drugs in the fiscal year of 06 to 07.1 This figure, coupled with the fact that the prevalence of adult obesity in the U.K. is above 20 per cent and set to rise10, signifies the incredible cost associated with this disease and, in turn, highlights the growing problem of obesity on a social and economic scale. Its a problem that cant be ignored, and throughout the course of this paper I will attempt to weigh and evaluate both sides of the argument; Should obese people pay more for medical treatment?, in o rder to find a resolution. First, before jumping in to the crux of the question, it is imperative to establish the importance of the NHS as well as its core principles, in order to allow a fully in-depth analysis of the question at hand. The NHS, which is the primary healthcare provider in Great Britain, was set up in 1948 with one of its key principles being; the health service will be available to all and financed entirely from taxation, which means that people pay into it according to their means.2 It is important to stress the word all in the sentence. This word refers to the nation as a whole, regardless of their medical condition. The importance of the NHS clearly cant be stated enough, a nationwide health service which aims to treat all without directly taking money from the patients, is vital to maintaining the infrastructure of the country. It would seem then that the very nature of this question would oppose the core principles established in the set-up of the NHS, however in the recent light of the current economic situation and even proposed budget cuts3, the question raised could one day become a reality. It is important to first define and explain obesity ahead of tackling the ethical dilemma which is the title of this paper. One definition would simply be too much body fat on an individual, while this is somewhat accurate, it is also incredibly basic and not at all scientific. The BMI (body mass index) measurement is one of the most straightforward and useful techniques to establish the condition of obesity. The BMI is calculated by correlating a relationship between the height and weight of an individual, it is used by many organisations around the world such as WHO and NHS. The formula for calculating the BMI is: The results gained from the BMI can be classified in table 1 in order to specify the particular weight class of an individual. Classification BMI (kg/m2) Principal cut-off points Additional cut-off points Underweight Severe thinness Moderate thinness 16.00 16.99 16.00 16.99 Mild thinness 17.00 18.49 17.00 18.49 Normal range 18.50 24.99 18.50 22.99 23.00 24.99 Overweight à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥25.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥25.00 Pre-obese 25.00 29.99 25.00 27.49 27.50 29.99 Obese à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥30.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥30.00 Obese class I 30.00 34.99 30.00 32.49 32.50 34.99 Obese class II 35.00 39.99 35.00 37.49 37.50 39.99 Obese class III à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥40.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥40.00 Table 1. adapted from WHO While the use of the body mass index to calculate a persons weight class is used worldwide it has a fair number of shortcomings and flaws. For instance, this table of classification for BMI is not gender specific, so it is applied the same for both males and females equally, as well as this, it also doesnt account for weight distribution in individuals nor is it possible to consider bone or muscle mass, both of which are heavier than fat. These problems will hold more significance later in this essay while discussing how obesity should be defined. Obesity is caused by a variety of different factors. These include genetic susceptibility, socio-environmental factors, malfunctioning appetite regulation or may also be a cause of other diseases, such as Cushings syndrome.7 While it was previously thought that obesity was caused by a lack of willpower or a lifestyle choice, more recent studies have discovered that obesity is a chronic disease, involving a number of different biochemical and metabolic processes compared to individuals who arent obese.8 As stated previously, obesity is linked to many more serious health conditions and illnesses. Examples of these include diabetes mellitus, increased cholesterol, coronary heart disease and hypertension amongst many others.7 It is important to discuss the seriousness of these resulting conditions in order to fully comprehend the fatality of obesity. Diabetes mellitus (otherwise known as type II diabetes) is a serious condition which occurs when the body either does not produce enough insulin or the cells do not properly react to the insulin produced. This condition is said to affect approximately 2 million people across England and Wales, supposedly with a further 750, 000 unaware that they have this condition.4 Type II diabetes can also lead to kidney disease, nerve damage or even strokes. Coronary heart disease is another serious condition which can be caused because of obesity, which affects almost 300, 000 people a year in the U.K.11 There are multiple actions that can be taken in an attempt to treat or cure obesity. These include dietary therapy in order to regulate the number of calories taken in by an individual, and to maintain that over a long-term period. Other methods which may be used in conjunction with this may be increased exercise, to burn off calories, weight loss surgery, such as gastric band surgery or possibly drug therapy, which is often used as a last resort. It should be noted that not one of these methods are able to fully treat obesity alone, instead they must be used in unison depending on the severity of the disease and also the individuals diagnosed with them. It apparent that obesity is an incredibly complicated disease in terms of the causes, secondary factors and treatments, all of which contribute towards a confusion regarding the nature of obesity in the minds of the public as well as upping the cost due its many treatment techniques, none of which can be considered 100 per cent effective. This encompasses all of the aspects of the disease, which is often described as an epidemic, as its a growing concern, and the economic burden attached is sure to evoke strong opinions regarding the question of this paper. Now that the importance of the health care system has been established and the medical significance of obesity has been recognised, the essay question itself can be discussed. The initial views on this topic are polarising, with some instantly believing that the obese should pay more for the disease that theyve inflicted upon themselves, believing that it is unfair that the rest of the nation should pay the cost. Others believe that they shouldnt pay the financial cost, stating that the NHS was set up to help all, despite whether or not their condition is self caused. The argument can even be pushed further, extrapolating that smokers, drinkers and even athletes would also have to pay for the medical costs for their diseases or injuries, because, by that same logic, these conditions are also self inflicted. Although there are certainly some truths to be had in these two contrasting opinions, the two sides of the argument will be investigated and examined on the grounds of ethicality, societal and fairness in an attempt to bring about some form of a resolve on this controversial topic. One of the primary factors for the argument for obese people having to finance the treatment of their medical condition is that the disease they are burdened with is self inflicted, which is to say that they literally brought it on themselves, so should therefore have to deal with the consequences. While there is some validity in this argument, it isnt quite as black and white as it may initially sound, with many further complexities set to arise. Those that oppose this argument, are likely to call discrimination, as this ideology that separates a certain type of people from the rest and forces them pay more, which is highly unjust. Also, by this same reasoning, and in the issue of fairness, other patients with self inflicted disease should also have to pay more for conditions and illnesses which they have brought upon themselves. Such conditions would include lung cancer for smokers, liver disease for those who drink as well as injuries to sports players and athletes, as these are a ll, to some degree, self inflicted. A counter point to this counter point would be that smokers and drinkers already pay more through an increased tax for the drugs (i.e. cigarettes and alcohol) which lead to the individual diseases, so an alternative, or possibly in addition, to forcing obesity patients to have to pay for medical treatments would be to raise the tax on foods with an increased calorie count. This may also be used to deter away from choosing these unhealthy foods as well as generate income from those who cost the NHS so much money in its treatment for obesity. However, this would result that members in the public that fall in to the normal weight range would also have to pay the increased tax for these same foods, if they choose to occasionally indulge. This, at first glance, seems like a fair compromise, as smokers who dont cost the NHS with treatment for smoking related disease still have to pay the tax on cigarettes, however, the idea comes full circle that people who arent obese are still having to pay lifestyles of the obese, indirect as it may be, which is one of the main points evoking the question at hand. There is evidence to suggest that those who are obese are also more likely to be in lower paid jobs, and as such, have less expendable income. This may be because those with lower income are more likely to live in poorer areas and where healthier, more nutritious foods arent as readily available or outside of their budget. This may also be due to a discrimination present against people who are obese and overweight. Employers may be more likely to hire those who arent overweight as they see their ability to resist overeating or staying in shape as a good quality in what Acs, Lyles and Stanton (2007) describe as a willingness to delay gratification. Whatever the reason may be for the correlation between being overweight and having lower income, the fact remains that the lack of capital possessed by the obese population would prove to be incredibly troublesome if obese people were to finance their medical treatment in this manner. The case for increasing the tax of unhealthy foods may b e less applicable as it may push both healthy foods and unhealthy foods out of reach for poorer and obese population financially. To overcome this, healthier foods have to be made cheaper and more widespread, which may again be difficult given the nature to produce healthier and organic foods are likely to cost more. Even so, it would seem any loss made would surely help the NHS spend less on obesity, which, in the 2007, was estimated at  £4.2 billion.6 The basis for this particular argument is on essentially boils down to the thought that obese people are obese solely because of their own doings, which many people believe to be an accurate portrayal of reality. However, this statement by no means holds true to the complete population of obese people. There is a genetic link associated with obesity, with the inheritable risk of obesity thought to be approximately 30%.7 Many genes have been found that code for weight control hormones, and a defect in these genes may be passed on the offspring, thereby increasing the chance of obesity in that child.5 This would bring about many more questions and dilemmas concerning the topic at hand. For instance, what if the cause for obesity was mainly genetic as opposed to being environmental? Should the patient still pay more even though, by definition, this type of obesity isnt necessarily self-inflicted? Some may answer this question by stating that those with genetic factors shouldnt pay, howe ver, what if both social and biological factors play an equal role in the cause of an individuals obesity? Or, further expanding on the idea that those found to have the genetic link shouldnt pay, how would the obesity genes be examined in the patient? Genetic testing may be carried out, but performing these tests on the entire to obese population in order to determine who should pay these costs would itself be costly, therefore being counter-productive where one of the primary aims of the question raised is to cut back on money being spent. There are also further complications regarding this wide held belief that obesity is self-inflicted. Are cases where individuals are driven to high calorie, comfort foods because of bullying or depression, be considered self-inflicted? Also, who should pay the cost for cases of childhood obesity? While some may point the fingers at the parents, one would have to ask if that is at all fair. For instance, parents arent sentenced for the crimes that their children commit. Evidence exists which associates an addiction to eating (as well as other addictions) with mental illnesses.9 Should these cases also have to pay for medical treatment themselves? By this same merit should schizophrenics and patients with other mental conditions have to finance their treatment? There are a host of other problems and issues which are presented if this question is to be seriously considered. The question of affordability and practicality surely arises when applying the theoretical question to a real-world scenario. If obese patients were to pay directly for their medication, surgery or weight-loss programs then how much should be charged? It would surely have to be a fairly significant amount as the cost of obesity itself is already at an extremely costly figure.6 Having to pay for medical treatment may create a divide between patients who can and cant afford the costs, possibly adding another level of discrimination. And what if patients are unable to meet the expense of these bills? Should they be denied treatment? Anything beyond entertaining this idea would bring about huge moral dilemmas, as the hospitals would essentially be playing God, deciding who lives and dies, based purely on their financial background. Also, the practicality of such a situation is likely to bring up further complications, with one question being; how should it be charged? The NHS wasnt set up to accept payments in this particular manner, so how could this be accomplished? Would the patients need to pay before their medication or surgery? If so, and the patient does not pay, it will again bring up the concept of denying treatment to patients. There is also the possibility that patients would pay post-surgery. But if they refuse to pay or cant afford it, then some form of policing body would need to be enforced to ensure these payments are made. While this will cost more money, again a problem given the nature of the question is to decrease the money spent, it also sends out an image of the NHS reminiscent of some sort of mobster loan shark. Another issue when considering this subject is the concept of defining obesity. Earlier I have stated the use of the BMI system to define obesity the world over, as well as outlining its fundamental flaws. A concern with defining obesity with the use of the BMI scale is that the differences between being classified as overweight or obese may literally be a few inches in height or a few kilograms in weight. This may very well create scenarios where a person may be a few inches shorter than another who is the same weight having to pay more for treatment. This could possibly be countered by measuring obesity by more methods than simply BMI alone, which is currently in place to diagnose obesity by the NHS. Other methodologies may also have to be in place in order to diagnose or differentiate between different classes of obesity. These could possibly include calculating the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), Waist circumference (WCR) and Skinfold thickness.7 together these allows for a more accura te representation of a patients physical status, allowing to charge for medical treatment accordingly, if that path were to be taken. It is clear that any attempt to find a solution to this question brings up series of arguments and counter points which negate and nullify each other, and instead of establishing a concrete plan of action, it would seem that the wisest and safest bet would be to sit on the fence. My personal opinion on the matter would be to increase the tax of unhealthy foods and make healthier foods readily available and at an affordable price as well as pushing for a more active lifestyle, something akin to the change4life scheme recently set up by the government. Though this isnt without flaws, it certainly seems to reach a form of middle ground in term of ethics and equality. One of the main aims of the NHS was to treat all patients who pay tax, so forcing a section of people to pay more, regardless of whether or not the condition is self inflicted, opposes its key ideologies as well as being highly discriminatory. My proposed plan of action is certainly more subdued and the benefits of which wo uld only be realised after a longer period of time, however, it strikes a fair balance between staying true to the NHS philosophy, equality for all an attempt to treat obesity and healthy lifestyle. The report should be similar in overall style to the topic discussed in Nelsons Issue II (Human Organ Transplantation) above. Another example for style could be a Scientific American article (e.g. How breast milk protects newborn (December, 1995) by J. Newman, pp58-61). The essay should cover the basic science, including recent developments and ongoing research, but should focus on examination of the ethical, social and legal issues related to the topic. 1.More than a million anti-obesity prescriptions were issued in England in the last financial year at a cost of  £47million. It means about 88,000 people could be on a course of treatment. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23406735-pills-not-the-answer-to-obesity-says-top-doctor.do 2. http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/nhshistory/Pages/NHShistory1948.aspx 3. http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/nhshistory/Pages/NHShistory1948.aspx http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8012588.stm 4. http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diabetes-type2/Pages/Introduction.aspx 5. Bouchard 1994 6. http://www.healthcarerepublic.com/news/934442/Cost-obesity-NHS-England-rise-62-billion/ Acs  : 9781845425005 , obesity, business and public policy. 7. Tomlinson 8. brock 9. truth mental illness: 9780757301070 10. http://www.who.int/infobase/report.aspx?rid=118iso=GBRDef_Code=cd.0701Survey_Year_End=2005genGraphButton=Generate+Graph 11. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx?url=Pages/What-is-it.aspx red: expand blue: unsure

Jimi Hendrix :: essays research papers

Jimi Hendrix Jimi Hendrix, possibly the greatest guitarist in rock history changed the sound of rock. In 1967 The Jimi Hendrix Experience rocked the nation with their first album Are You Experienced?. Hendrix had a short life because of drugs in 1970 when he was only 27 years old. In a few years, rock and roll changed a lot and Jimi’s guitar playing was a big influence. Jimi Hendrix was born in Seattle Washington on November 27, 1942. When he was just a kid he would play along with his R&B records whenever he could. He didn’t always like to play music though, he always had wanted to be in the army. In the late 1950’s Jimi joined the 101st airborne division, but he had a back injury doing a jump and got a medical discharge. That’s when he decided to have a musical career. By this time he had already become a pretty good guitar player, And is now the greatest known guitar player ever. Jimi started out playing backup for smalltime R&B groups. Soon some of the best known artists, such as BB king, Ike and Turner, and Little Richard wanted him. After a few months of touring with R&B groups he wanted to try singing. A guy heard him singing at a club and talked him into moving to England, where he met the rest of his band members. In 1966 Jimi Hendrix debuted. One year later their club shows were overcrowded. The Monkees heard them and liked them, and asked them to tour with them. But not many Monkees fans liked his lyrics and his style, so they kicked him off the tour. After this he was invited to pop festivals and eventually came out with his first

Abortion Controversy Essay -- Pregnancy

The Abortion Issue Introduction Abortion has been a very controversial subject over these past few decades. Every time you pick up a paper or magazine it seems there is always some protest regarding abortion, whether it be for fetal rights or women's rights. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica the definition of abortion is "the expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it has reached the stage of viability (in human beings, usually about the 20th week of gestation). An abortion may occur spontaneously, in which case it is also called a miscarriage, or it may be brought on purposefully, in which case it is often called an induced abortion." This paper will focus only on those abortions which are considered to be induced and will present the argument to both sides, considering both the argument for Pro-life as well as for Pro-choice. Pro-Life Argument Don Marquis states in his article Why Abortion is Immoral that killing someone is wrong because the killing inflicts the greatest possible loss on the victim. He says that it is not the effect on the murderer and the victim's friends and relatives that makes killing an absolute wrong. Although killing does affect those close to the victim the ultimate harm done is on the victim himself due to their loss of future. Marquis states that killing is regarded as one of the worst crimes because it is depriving people of the value of their future. If this view were applied to abortion it would be easy to see how abortion could be considered wrong. By willingly ending the life of the fetus you are willingly ending their possibility of a future. The fetus has the possibility of having a future with emotions, experiences and activities that are the same as human beings and even closer to that of young children. This argument applies in most cases of abortion but not all. For example, to abort a fetus whose life will be filled with unbearable pain and anguish because of a physical or cognitive disorder could be justified because it could be said that the future of the fetus would be bleak and uncertain. In ways it could be stated that the "means justify the end". It must be noted however, that this acceptance would not apply to all situations of physical and cognitive disabilities; only the most severe cases would qualify. For example, there could be no way to justify inducing an abortion because it has been de... ...e brain is functioning. Conclusion When analyzing both sides of the abortion issues, it is evident that both sides provide both strong and weak arguments. Abortion will always be a controversial issue in society and there will always be disputing sides to the matter. Each person must make their own decisions based on their beliefs and factual evidence. Both sides must learn to be open-minded to the other side and learn to respect the fact that they have different thoughts and views. WORKS CITED "Abortion." Encyclopaedia Britannica - Online. 1 Oct. 2000. Carrier, Richard C. "Abortion is not Immoral and Should not be Illegal." Internet Infidels. 1 Oct. 2002 . Jarvis Thomson, Judith. "A defence of Abortion." Gender Basics. 2nd Ed. Anne Minas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Inc, 2000. 402-409. Marquis, Don. "Why Abortion is Immoral." Gender Basics. 2nd Ed. Anne Minas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Inc, 2000. 398-401. Robinson, B.A. "Abortion." Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. 3 Jul 2002. 1 Oct. 2002 Sherwin, Susan. "Abortion." Gender Basics. 2nd Ed. Anne Minas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning Inc, 2000. 410-417.

Behind Convicts Eyes by Cerceral Prison Essay -- Behind Convicts Ey

"Behind a Convict's Eyes" by K.C. Cerceral Introduction This paper is about the book 'Behind a Convict's Eyes' by K.C. Cerceral. This book was written by a young man who enters prison on a life sentence and describes the world around him. Life in prison is a subculture of its own, this subculture has its own society, language and cast system. The book describes incidents that have happen in prison to inmates. With this paper I will attempt to explain the way of life in a prison from an inmate's view. Understanding Prison Life After reading the book I have gained a new understanding of what inmates think about in prison. Working in an institution, I have a certain cynical attitude at times with inmates and their requests. Working in a reception facility, this is a facility where inmates are brought in from the county jails to the state intake facility, we deal with a lot of requests and questions. At times, with the phone ringing off the hook from family members and inmates with their prison request forms, you get a little cynical and tired of answering the same questions over and over. As I read the book I begin to understand some of the reason for the questions. Inmate(s) now realize that the officers and administrative personnel are in control of their lives. They dictate with to get up in the morning, take showers, eat meals, go to classes, the need see people for different reason, when to exercise and when to go to bed. The lost of control over their lives is a new experience for some and they would l ike to be able to adjust to this new lost of freedom. Upon understanding this and in reading the book, I am not as cynical as I have been and try to be more patient in answering questions. So in a way I have changed some of my thinking and understanding more of prison life. Describe Strategies and Compare with Voices from the Field Some of the adaptation strategies used by ?Anonymous? and the other inmates in prison where to use nicknames to feel more individual and unique. Being in prison can cause you to lose your identity as a person, most inmates are known by numbers. Another strategy was to conform to the schedule of the prisons. You can not eat when you want, shower, get up, go to recreation and go to bed. Everyone has a schedule and working with this schedules helps to learn how to cope. Also Anonymous and other inmates would take cla... ...y. As the book showed ?dad yells and blames everyone, mom yells at the kids, the older children yell at the younger children, and the youngest child kicks the cat.? (Carceral, 2004, pp. 200). The youngest child is not able to understand what is really going on and feels worthless and not loved without conditions. This child will turn to where they will get attention. This can lead to undesirable associates and into crime. As the child grows older, and has children of this/her own the syndrome is passed on. Conclusion I have to say the reading gave me a different outlook on what inmates? do and think while in prison. They become a number not a person and do have needs that have to be address. Addressing these needs will help in running an institution smoothly and more safely. Finally Anonymous makes a powerful statement in the writing of this book on some policies that should be changed in prisons. I really enjoyed reading this book and having maybe a new outlook in dealing with inmates. References Carceral, K.C., (2004), Behind a Convict?s Eyes, Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Schmid, Thomas & Jones, Richard, (2001), Voices from the Field, Wadsworth, Thomson Learning

Human Tendencies, Montessori

Throughout history, humans have relied on their ingenuity and adaptability for survival. Regardless of race, country, or culture, people follow similar patterns of exploration, inventiveness, and creativity. After years of careful observation, Maria Montessori was able to identify the importance of tendencies that compel human beings to construct and refine the world around them. The practical application of the Montessori Method is based on human tendencies to explore, move, share with a group, to be independent and make decisions, create order, develop self-control, abstract ideas from experience, use the creative imagination, work hard, repeat, concentrate, and perfect one’s efforts. Tendencies are important to every human being as it draws us to adapt and survive under different circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to know the definition of tendencies and its general characteristics. Definition of tendencies What do we understand by the word ‘tendency’ is predisposition to think, act, behave, or proceed in a particular way, an inclining or contributing influence. In other words, tendencies draw human being to achieve something and develop. According to Montessori these tendencies are innate. They are the basis of our predispositions, or as named by Montessori in Formation of Man, our nebulae. Human Tendencies is a natural urge to do something and is developed throughout our development. It is beneficial to know and understand the basic human tendencies that we, as humans develop naturally. Every human being needs to find in the environment oxygen, food, water, love and protection in order to survive and then to develop, so we have to survive first and then to progress. These tendencies help us to become human. These are the ways in which we, humans are all similar. They unite us as a species and distinct humans from animals. ‘There are certain basic factors which do not change. What may change is what is given to the mind. ’ The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education – Mario M. Montessori, AMI, pg. 6 We can see that tendencies do not change and human tendencies are hereditary. Everyone has the same tendencies, but the way we use them is differently. The tendencies lead us and children learn independently from the environment and adapt to any society. General characteristics †¢Tendencies are universal and all human beings have them no matter where they are born in the world, irrespective of culture, nationality, race and religion. †¢They are present in all human beings right from birth and as such described as inborn or inert and they last throughout life. They are unchanging in the way they function and have remained the same for different generations, but only modified to suit the environment man finds himself in. †¢There are several tendencies and all working together and not in isolation, are interconnected. An important principle in The Absorbent Mind is that education starts from birth, so we must guard the child’s psychic power in the first few years. The importance of tendencies for human being These tendencies are important for humankind and they need to be express full to be suitable for us to live and develop. These tendencies are present at all ages of our lives but some are stronger than others during different developmental periods. The tendencies also vary in the way and strength in which they appear in different people but they all exist in some form in every person. And it is these tendencies which guide our development and this one of the reasons why are important for the humankind. Tendencies serve to help human beings survive and develop fully making something of them. Animals have instinct and are born complete with everything they need to survive in an environment. The human beings have tendencies which drive them to explore, develop and adapt in order to survive whatever the environment is. Human beings have both physical and psychological needs. The physical needs for food, shelter and clothing, and the psychological need for security, love, art, music and culture. It is the tendencies that drive the humankind to look for and create those things that meet his physical and psychological needs from within his environment. Montessori’s belief in the potential of every human being is grounded in the idea that the world can be changed for the better if education is adapted to he child’s true nature instead of being limited to the transmission of academic knowledge. However we also need to recognise that as members of the human species, children are born with certain genetic traits or potentialities, unique to human beings, Montessori called these traits, human tendencies. These tendencies relate directly to human needs: for example o ur need for food is linked with our tendency to explore. 1. Tendency for Exploration It is through movement that exploration began. People learn from the discoveries they make or that which others before them made. They look around and make connections with things in their environment also by smelling and hearing. The child will have the natural urge to explore their environment they are in and are constantly learning from what they see and hear around them. The child is learning how to use their basic senses as in see, taste, touch, hear and manipulate something or the other. In the first few months the child is learning how to move his arms and legs he is not very strong at this time his muscles are not developed yet and he just observes his surroundings. They imitate the actions of those around them. All the connexions from the brain at the birth, which has one hundred billion neurons, are not yet made; therefore they are waiting for being connected in the new environment. Even though we have an immense responsibility to provide the right environment because the child will trust the environment and he will trust him to do things by himself. The child is an explorer. He needs to explore the world on a level that he is capable of learning from. The function of the Assistant to Infancy is to put the child in touch with the many aspects of the world around him which will help him classify his impression, build new skills and knowledge. The world is an exciting place and the entire more so if the child is able to make his own discoveries about it. The Assistant will choose activities which may nurture his interest but be careful to help the child to point the discovery without actually making the discovery for him. That is all about the exploration. 2. Tendency for Order The human being must have order in his environment to be able to find his way back home after exploring his environment. The child requires from of order whenever he is exploring. This will help him in on many levels- if he wishes to carry out an activity successfully then order is required. Order and its extension into exactness and precision will help him to gain clear and accurate impressions so that he may understand his world better. External order can help create a logical and orderly mind. We can observe in the small babies their love for order in their surroundings. They cannot practically live in disorder, they are so aware of it, thing which is not happen with the grown-up children. They will expect to find objects where they first perceived them and will go great lengths to put them back if they are ‘out of place’. 3. Tendency for Orientation Through order we can build our orientation within our surroundings. The child needs some points of reference in the environment to orientate him and find things. And this means he can orient himself in his environment and to act with purpose. In his book, The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education Mario Montessori states: ‘If the security given by the sense of orientation is removed, it is not that one feels lost in a city, one feels lost in one’s mind. ’ pg 21, AMI pamphlet 1966 For a child, if something is usually placed in a certain spot, he wants to find it there. If the order is taken away, then he becomes disoriented, lost and unable to function properly. 4. Tendency for communication To communicate is the essence of our civilisation. This is what makes us different then other species. To have the ability to express oneself fully and accurately is a great gift. The more the child is helped in this area the more independent he can be. The child is able to interact, express thoughts and ideas with people in his environment through language. Prior to developing language, the baby only could communicate by crying which meant the adult had to guess his needs. With language, the child is better clearly able to express his needs and thoughts and become more independent and secure. 5. Tendency for self-esteem Feeling good about oneself is one of the generally accepted criteria for good mental health. One of things that help children feel good about themselves comes from the fact that they need a lot of support, love and attention from the adults around them. 6. Tendency for work (movement) Since the child is in process of developing, movement plays a vital part within his life. Even movement for a young child is work. The child creates the movement even before the moment of birth, he starts from his mother’s womb, because he has a strong tendency for the movement. And the tendency for movement keeps the child active. Some of it can be reflexive movement like grasping an object hanging and controlled movement – going here and there. Being on movement is co-ordinated i. e. where the body and mind working in harmony. At the moment of birth movement is amazing, the hands are very important. In the first few months babies start to develop head and trunk control. When lying on their tummy their hands are in position to help by pushing through the floor surface. The child then requires activities that are both purposeful and challenging, that will bring real work to his life. The child while engaged upon this type of activity will also be satisfying tendencies towards exactness, repetition, concentration, calculation and imitation while at the same time building a firm base for his creative imagination. 7. Tendency for group orientation The child knows that we are different from the animals or pets. He shows us that by crying at the beginning. He wants to belong to a group, especially with the closer ones- mother and family. The child makes sense of relationships and also learns the behaviour of that group i. e. the way they eat, speak, dress and the rules of how that place function i. e. gestures, words. And because he knows and he wants to become like adults around him is now coming the tendency for imitation. The basic skills of children are usually achieved through imitation, which is later modified by the child to suit his own personality and improved upon. For instance gregariousness leads to imitation. Even with adults, the need to conform to the way of life around us so that we are accepted leads to the imitation of the values of that society

Master Harold and the Boys Essay

â€Å"Master Harold† †¦and the boys, by the white South African playwright Athol Fugard, is a naturalistic play set in a Tea Room in Port Elizabeth on a rainy day in 1950. Two black servants, Sam and Willie, and their white master’s son Hally (‘Master Harold’), have deep conversations about the good time they had together when Hally was young. In the beginning of the play, Sam and Willie, practice their dancing techniques and talk about an upcoming dance contest. Fugard has created first impressions of situation and characters in the opening of the play by using set design, stage directions, duologue as well as speech and tone. The opening of the play is interpreted as being up to Hally’s first entry. Firstly, the unprofessional and for the audience surprisingly casual and light-hearted situation is created by Fugard’s choice of set design, stage directions and duologue. Secondly, Sam and Willie’s relationship is proven of unequal status, yet intimate and deep, by the difference in speech and tone, and by the choice of topics in the duologue. Finally, initial perceptions of a childish and rude Willie and an intelligent and experienced Sam are constructed through mostly speech and tone. The unprofessional impression of the Tea Room and the carefree and easy going ambiance is created by set design and stage directions, and duologue. Firstly, the amateurish impression of the business is created by the blackboard on which an untrained hand has chalked up the prices of the items, and by the few sad ferns in pots in the room. Furthermore, the fact that Fugard has chosen to clear all tables to one side, suggests that the business is not doing well, because the Tea Room is not likely to be expecting any customers. Secondly, the audience notices immediately that the mood in the room is casual, by letting Willie start off with singing a song as he mops down the floor. This strong mood is then reinforced when Willie suddenly gets up and starts dancing, Sam eagerly encouraging and correcting Willie’s dance technique. The audience must have been surprised by this casual situation, because one must not forget that at the time of the performance, around 1982, apartheid in South Africa was considerably further developed than the setting of the play. The fact that two black men, obviously workers, are without supervision of a white person and that they are enjoying themselves during work must have raised a sense of unease from the spectators, unsure how to react. The relationship between Sam and Willie is profound, yet Sam seems to have a higher status compared to Willie, as suggested by Fugard’s choice of topic of conversation and by the contrast between the terms of address and physical position. To begin with, the way in which both men communicate is very informal. Willie uses plenty of swear words, like â€Å"fuckin’ whore† or â€Å"bitch†, whereas Sam uses a higher register, but is still joking around with Willie (â€Å"How’s your pillow with the quickstep?†). This use of language suggests that both men feel at ease and that they have known each other for a very long time already. A sense of intimate relationship is also created by the topics of conversation. Willie is very open with Sam about his relationship with Hilda Samuels, as when he talks about the problems buying food for their baby of which he isn’t even sure it is his son (â€Å"Only his hair looks like me.†); he shows no hesitation to discuss the matter with Sam. Sam even knows that Willie often beats up his girlfriend, suggesting that they have been living alongside for a long time. The audience realises that it is watching an intimate conversation, which makes them attentive, curious and involved in the discussion. Secondly, Sam’s higher social position is suggested by the contrast between the way Sam addresses Willie and vice versa, almost like a teacher-student relation. Sam suggests improvements for Willie’s dance technique, as â€Å"Don’t look down!† or â€Å"But you’re too stiff!†, as well as how he could be more successful in his relationships with girlfriends (â€Å"You hit her too much.†) and Willie reacts willingly to take up the advice. Also, Sam demonstrates the dance as it should be, suggesting that Sam is more experienced. Lastly, a subtle but symbolic detail is the physical positioning of Sam and Willie at the very beginning of the play: Willie is mopping down the floor on his knees, working, while Sam is flicking through a comic book, standing, and obviously not working. Fugard has visualised their relationship by the contrast between kneeling and sitting, and working and relaxing, and this can in fact be applied to the entire rest of the play. Sam is portrayed as a confident, intelligent and experienced character through his speech and tone. The way Sam guides Willie through the learning process of the quickstep, and even demonstrates a much more accomplished dance than Willie, indicates he is a skillful dancer himself. Fugard has made the audience feel sympathy towards Sam, as he encourages Willie, â€Å"Look happy, Willie! Relax Willie!†, although Willie is a hopeless dancer. Fugard represents Willie’s character as slightly vulnerable, unexperienced, and as a bad lover through his reactions to Sam’s teasing, the difficulties he has with learning the quickstep and through his description of his relationship with girlfriends. Willie is very quickly frustrated by Sam’s advice, like â€Å"Yesterday I’m not straight †¦ today I’m too stiff!† and â€Å"I try hard because it is hard.†. Willie’s incapability to cope with Sam’s teasing once even results in a small brawl between the two of them: â€Å"It’s finish between us.† Furthermore, Willie is clearly a bad love partner, confirmed when he describes his girlfriend as a â€Å"whore† and a â€Å"bitch†, but which is, quite ironically, provoked by himself hitting his girlfriend every once in a while. This, together with his vulgar choice of language, results in an aversion from the audience to Willie. To conclude, Fugard has managed to create strong first impressions in the opening of the play in terms of situation and characters. He has used set design, stage directions and duologue to create an unprofessional and casual ambience. In terms of characters, Fugard has succeeded in associating strong characteristic features to Sam and Willie, both intimate friends, yet separated in a way by an intellectual line.